Cartography - bụ ... History of cartography. mmepe nke cartography. Cartography na Geoinformatics

Ọchịchọ ịmata ha na ọnọdụ na ala, na oké osimiri ma ọ bụ na kpakpando ahụ bụ otu n'ime ndị mbụ ezi uche mkpa nke ndị mmadụ. Oge ochie Eserese nke oge ochie ebe obibi anana-mgbagwoju na multi-kpọrọ direction nke mmadụ ọrụ. Studies nke ọhụrụ ala na nkọwa nke ha kwalitere ndị nwere ọgụgụ isi mmepe nke dum nke mmepeanya. Cartography - ọ bụghị naanị a set nke ụzọ maka visual ngosi nke Ụwa n'elu ma ọ bụ n'eluigwe nke kpakpando - bụ ngwá ọrụ dị irè maka mmụta, nke na-emezu n'oge na akụkọ ụmụ mmadụ.

Mmalite nke okwu

Okwu Grik χάρτης - hartis (Charter, papaịrọs, akwụkwọ) na γράφειν - eserese (ide, scratching), ghọrọ ihe ndabere nke a okwu e a buru ibu nke ebe pụrụ iche ọkachamara na-eme na nkwụsị nke dị iche iche ubi nke sayensị metụtara nkọwa nke gbasara ohere gburugburu ebe obibi nke ụmụ mmadụ na ebe obibi. Cartography - a akpan akpan ebe nke visual nkà.

The ihe nlereanya kasị mma nke ji aka dee kaadị ndị nketa nke gara aga afọ - na masterpieces nke elu nka larịị ndịna. Taa, na ihe e kere eke nke electronic map, chaatị, osise na-apụghị ime na-enweghị nka. Na XXI narị afọ cartography - a ọkaibe kọmputa akụkụ na 3D-ndịna-emeputa, nkecha visual imewe.

mbido

Ndị mbụ extant oyiyi yiri kaadị, na-emetụta ọ bụghị nanị ndị oge ochie Eserese nke Ụwa n'elu, ma na-na mbara igwe. Petroglyphs (pịrị na nkume) - onyinyo nke na-egbuke egbuke ìgwè kpakpando dị na France na Spain, nkume sere, reminiscent nke obodo atụmatụ e mere maka 6000 afọ BC na n'ebe di ala ala nke Turkey. History of Cartography na-ekwu na ọ pụtara n'ihu ndị na-ede na akụkọ banyere ịta nke nkà mmụta sayensị na mma maka ihe e kere eke nke mbụ map image.

The echiche nke oge ochie ndị ọkà ihe ọmụma na ụwa iji na-apụta ìhè mbụ map ga-adọpụta na VI na narị afọ BC. e. ọkà mmụta sayensị Anaximander. Earth owụt nwere a ewepụghị gburugburu, gbara ya gburugburu mmiri.

Ihe Ọmụma nke ụwa na-amụba, ubara nke ebe planet, gosiri na map. cartography development siri ike iche n'echiche na-enweghị "Geography" nke Ptolemy (II na narị afọ BC. e.). On ya map na-ama na marking masịrị na lonjituudu gosiri site na atọ akụkụ nke ụwa: Europe, Asia, na Libya (Africa). Nnọọ ezi kọwaa nwere kasị mụọ ebe nke Europe na North Africa, ọzọ nhazi - Asia. A oké ebe na map nke Ptolemy were Unknown ala.

Maps of Ancient China na East

The mbụ e kwuru banyere Chinese map, nwere na mgbakwunye na obodo data, ihe ọmụma banyere ihe dị iche iche ebe nke aku na uba, banyere ibu dịịrị III na narị afọ BC. e. Fundamentals nke cartography dị ka ihe alloy nke dị iche iche ihe ọmụma sayensị - anụ ahụ, obodo, akụkọ ihe mere eme, akụ na ụba na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị - na-tọrọ mgbe ahụ. Maps na topographical atụmatụ nke ndị Han na narị afọ ndị mbụ nke oge anyị na-ama ama a usoro nke na akara, a akụkụ anọ ahazi usoro na kpọmkwem ókè nke ala nke onwunwe nke dị iche iche na-achị achị.

Rụzuru cartographers India ochie ekere ke atụ na The Epic uri "Mahabharata" na "Ramayana". Na ebe edinam bụ uri ndị a, e nwere ọtụtụ akụkọ ifo ọcha - kpara obodo chepụtara echepụta kere eke.

On ochie map nke Eastern ọdịdị mbara ala Al-Khwarizmi, Piri Reis na ndị ọzọ a otutu mma na nke bụ adịgboroja ihe, ma ha na-ugbu a na-ebe-amaghị European ọkà mmụta sayensị. Otu n'ime ha - na ndịda ndịda America na ọbụna amaghị ndịda Afrika - Antarctica.

Oge obodo nchoputa

akụkọ ihe mere eme nke cartography mejupụtara ọtụtụ isi revolutionary nzọụkwụ. Dị otú ahụ ihe ndị ji na Renaissance. Ọ bụ ọdịdị nke ụwa German geographer Martin Behaim, bụ onye a kpọrọ "Earth apple", na mmepụta nke mbụ collections nke map, authors ndị Gerhart Mercator na Abraham Ortelius. Ndị a atlases nwere niile àgwà, chọpụta nri obibia nke imewe na imewe nke kaadị. Dị map ọganihu nke obibi akwụkwọ.

Ndị a ihe ndị a na ya pụta na a na-akpata ala nchoputa, adịghị ekpe na mbara ala nke ọchịchịrị tụrụ. Ntoputa nke ezi map jere ozi dị ka ha ịga nke ọma ọdịdị mbara ala, cartography mewo ka o kwe ọtụtụ osimiri igwu na transcontinental nweekwa crossings. Njem nke Columbus na Magellan, Vasco da Gama njem mere omume site mepụtara nke igodo ngwaọrụ na anyanwụ na kpakpando na mbara dissemination nke ezi na dịtụ zuru image-amụ ụwa elu.

Cartography na Russia

Mkpa nke ihe ọmụma banyere ebe ókè, na steeti, na ọnọdụ nke isi eke saịtị nke ego nke eke ego, na Russia maara ebe ọ bụ na onyeisi feuds. Geography, ọdịdị ala, cartography ịdaba akporo ọ bụla ala nke mmasị n'oge e guzobere a centralized ike Moscow. The N'ihi nke a anya bụ "Big Atụmatụ". Nke ahụ bụ atụmatụ nke Russian n'ókèala, gburu na a mpempe akwụkwọ 2,5h2,5 m, kere site na otu nke na nsụgharị dị ka iwu nke Ivan ndị tara.

Nke a bụ nke mbụ a maara ọrụ nke Russian cartographers bịara naanị n'ụdị a nkọwa zuru ezu - "Big Book of Drawings", nke a nnukwu ọmụma ọdịnaya na akpachapụ nke kaadị arụmọrụ bụ anya.

ikwu obibia

Site n'oge Peter m nke Russia kpụrụ a ala usoro nke Geodesy na Cartography. Nkwadebe na-ebi akwụkwọ nke kaadị e nyere ikike nke Academy nke Sciences. The pụta bụ a nnukwu ọrụ na Gọọmenti ala nke Russian n'ókèala, tọhapụrụ ọtụtụ nsụgharị nke zuru ezu atlases.

Otu n'ime ihe ndị ọkachamara na Fans ụtọ a oké ama Atlas Central Russian anāchi achi,-achịkọtakwa ma bipụta n'okpuru nduzi nke A. I. Mende.

On ọhụrụ oru na nzukọ larịị nke ụlọ cartography na geoinformatics a zụlitere na Soviet oge. Site 1954, nkewa mba ahụ dum e dechara ya na ọnụ ọgụgụ nke 1: 100,000. Mgbe streamlined ifịk ọnụ nke mba e nyere ndị "Great Soviet Atlas of the World" - otu n'ime ndị kasị zuru ezu map nke ụwa media.

nkà na ụzụ

Hand mmasị atụmatụ na map nke narị afọ gara aga bụ isiokwu nke mmasị akụkọ ihe mere eme, na-anakọta na connoisseurs nke graphic art. Modern cartography - njikọ nke ọnwụ onu sayensị na nkà na ụzụ. Itunanya bụ ọtụtụ ojiji nke remote ụzọ nke zoning nke mbara ala - mbụ efe n'elu foto, na mgbe - ka iṅomi elu nke Earth site Satellites. Ndị a ego mere taa map na atụmatụ dị iche iche na ọnụ ọgụgụ pụrụ iche na ya oke na izi ezi.

Computer na electro-ngwa anya-ebi akwụkwọ na usoro nwere fundamentally gbanwere kaadị ebi akwụkwọ usoro. 3D-ịme ngosi uwe, digital image nhazi, analysis na management nke nnukwu ọdụ data - na mbụ na-arụ ọrụ ụzọ nke oge a cartography. Na nke a mkpa akwụkwọ ụgbọelu mbelata ngwa ngwa. Isi ntụziaka nke taa cartography na geoinformatics mere anya nke ihe ọmụma banyere ihe geosphere maka electronic media ikiri na a dịgasị iche iche nke Ngwa.

Ahụ na-agụnye nkewa:

• Cartography - general ọmụmụ nke map.
• History of cartography - mmepe nke ụzọ nke nkwadebe, na-eme na-eji map.
• Emebe na nkewa.
• Cartographic semiotics - a usoro nke na akara na ha were na kaadị.
• Cartographic imewe.
• Edition na-ebipụta map.
• Iji map.
• Mmepe nke cartographic isi nweta ihe ọmụma.
• Toponymy - ọkà mmụta sayensị nke obodo aha.

Ụlọ ọrụ na ọnọdụ cartography

Modern cartographic ngwaahịa nwere ike ịnwe ozi mkpa ọtụtụ ebe nke na nkà mmụta sayensị, na-elekọta mmadụ na omenala omume nke ndị mmadụ. N'etiti ha bụ ndị izugbe - ọnọdụ nke eke na wuru si malite, geologic, ala, ethnographic. Otu n'ime ihe ndị ọhụrụ ebe ndị geo-gburugburu, geopolitics, electoral.

Iche n'etiti ndị dị iche iche ebe nke bara uru ngwa nke ndị dị otú ahụ na ngwaahịa na nwere kpọmkwem chọrọ maka nkwadebe na egbu. Maps na atlases na-ifịk ifịk na-eji na mmụta usoro na dị iche iche na-etoju nke agụmakwụkwọ, nnyocha sayensị, ha na-mkpa ke Maritime na ikuku igodo, map - akụkụ dị mkpa nke njem nleta guidebooks. Kemgbe ụwa, ina agha na obodo engineering map na topographical atụmatụ.

IT-teknụzụ

Computer technology na cartography nwee oké mgbanwe, eke otu n'ime ndị kasị ewu ewu nke ya ntụziaka. Mmekọrịta nke na kọmputa ịme ngosi uwe na geo-informatics kere GIS nkewa. Ndị kasị pụta ìhè na iche n'ihi na ọ ghọọ ndị online nkewa, ikwe ka ojiji nke dị mkpa na mkpa ihe ọmụma banyere gburugburu geosphere, a nnukwu ọnụ ọgụgụ nke ndị mmadụ.

Ndị isi uru nke online cartography bụ mkpa nke ozi, ya elu ọmụma ọdịnaya na doo anya. Ikike imelite map online, nsụgharị dị iche iche nke ya ngosi - planar na atọ akụkụ, ehihie na abalị, na mgbakwunye na nke panoramic map foto na video - niile na nke a pụtara anaghị cartographers nke gara aga.

Na ala na na oké osimiri na Earth na na ohere

Enweghị kaadị bụ omume na-inyocha ụwa. Ha na-ebu ozi chikọta ọkachamara si dị iche iche alaka nke sayensị, nke na-enyere ya analysis nhazi, ọdịdị nke ọhụrụ chepụtara na hypotheses.

Ka ihe atụ, geomorphology - na sayensị nke iwu na-achị guzobe terrestrial enyemaka - ike ime na-enweghị kpọmkwem topographical ala na seafloor map. Na-amụ nkesa na-akpata ntiwapụ nke ọrịa bụ-agaghị ekwe omume na-enweghị zuru ezu eke na socio-aku map.

Ọbụna anya mbara ala-aghọ ihe nke oge a cartography. Comparative Planetology tent nke guzobe nke eluigwe, na-enyocha map nke Earth na ihe oyiyi e site ugboelu.

Omenala na olileanya

Mgbe ụfọdụ, e nwere ndị ikpe nke na-abịanụ ọnwụ nke omenala cartography. Weere mmepe nke ọmụma technology ga-eduga abaghị n'ihe nke map na atụmatụ n'ụdị akwụkwọ globes na atlases. Find kasị ọmụma banyere ihe ọ bụla ebe na mbara ala ma ọ bụ na foreseeable ohere na-aghọ mfe. Ma ọ na-ekwu naanị banyere otú n'akwụkwọ nke cartographic ọmụma.

Cartography - bụ a ogologo akụkọ ihe mere eme na oké omenala. Ka ebipụta àgwà, na ebube nke graphic imewe kaadị ugbu a na-eche ihe na-anakọta - oge a ọmụma na igodo usoro na-wuru na ụkpụrụ mepụtara ọgbọ nke cartographers.

The mgbe nile mgbanwe ke anụ ahụ, na-elekọta mmadụ na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị onyinyo nke Earth na ya gburugburu ebe obibi na-eme ka nkewa sayensị na nkà na ụzụ na ụlọ ọrụ, mkpa nke ga-ọli.